finally, mortals appeared this was the onset of the Humanozic eon 

humans have a singular set of genetic regions called accelerated human regions or HAR’s and these regions differentiate humans from other animals; humans developed enlarged brains that enable them to achieve language capabilities they also gained the skills to think to be conscious to recollect, and to imagine.

The brain volume of people at large has discontinuously increased in three stages, the expansion of brain volume seems to be synchronized with large-scale volcanic eruptions this means that the rise in brain volume is caused by stem evolution driven by hi our magma, about 1 million 200 thousand years ago humans started moving out of the African continent the last common female ancestor who left the African continent 200,000 years ago is termed mitochondrial Eve, descendants of mitochondrial Eve entered North America and Central America 15,000 years ago 10,000 years ago further descendants reached the southern tip of South America that they had spread everywhere the globe, since then an epical advance of human civilization has taken place

 conflicts in fighting over territory occurred between civilizations to avoid fighting religions spread to exchange governance by royal families entrenched through inheritance, with time national leaders came to be elected by voters modern democratic nations appeared, democracy may be a social form that grants freedom, equality, and fundamental human rights.

The commercial Revolution began in Great Britain after the Principia by physicist was published, new technologies established or applied supported knowledge base dramatically changed human society, the invention of the locomotive enabled transportation of products by railway, the invention of cars and airplanes helped us to travel long distances quickly,

 human society entered the age of never-before-seen abundance,

 however, war occurred incessantly sometimes irreversible tragedy was caused by the misapplication of knowledge domain,

the information revolution arose following the invention of computers; it enabled men to explore the universe as was symbolized by the Apollo program and therefore the invention of the web led to a brand new era during which people across the planet can connect in an immediate.

UNITED NATION

Out of remorse over past Wars, the birth of a UNITED NATION (UN) came into existence in october 24 1945 the EU was formed as a unified state in Europe where Wars had recurred most often, in other areas, similar Federation's are emerging, bringing us closer to the birth of a harmonious world nation, within the scope of Earth's history the human azoic era is extremely short however it's humans entire history unfolding within the context of the Earth's history biologically individuals are only one species of animal, however, we are essentially different from other animals thanks to our evolved brains what else lies ahead for kinsfolk you 

Human activities are captivated with fuel was produced and accumulated through Earth's history over billions of years we are now depletion these fuels at a furious pace, the number of fuel remaining is predicted to decrease sharply after 2020 it absolutely was once assumed that fuel would one out by 2100, however, thanks to the shale gas revolution this depletion are going to be delayed 100 years progress in medical technology, and also the intake of nutritious meals has caused explosive population growth; as a result, severe food shortages will occur around 2020 these will mark the start of the age of three billion refugees. However, the world's population is anticipated to decrease to five billion by 2100 after peaking at 10 billion in 2050

until 2050 the increasing population will still cause severe environmental contamination, numerous global challenges will amplify the anxiety within human societies, what does the longer term of mortals hold 

In the field of science, innovative technologies are going to be developed at an accelerated pace; humans will build an area base on the moon to organize for a search of the planets of our solar system; artificially intelligent robots are going to be involved in space exploration, assisting humans within their tasks in the near future self-replicating robots will appear and can evolve beyond humans limits, these artificial life-forms will gradually travel out into the galaxy moreover new technology enabling us to travel into different dimensions are going to be developed humans must become able to recognize the planet beyond space and time eventually the role of kinsfolk are finished, which will be the tip of the Humanozoic era

this scenario is also the inevitable results of the strategy of life's evolution because, within the future, the planet will face more upheavals than ever before in its history

centering on Asia, all continents will gather to form the supercontinent Amasia

plants consume atmospheric co2 to fix carbon in their bodies, dead plants made of fixed carbon are covered by sediment; this process plays a role in reducing atmospheric co2, the appearance of the supercontinent Amasia will lead to an increase in the land area that can fix carbon more plants on a larger supercontinent reduce more atmospheric co2, the amount of co2 will decrease to one-tenth of the present level, the c4 plants requiring higher concentrations of co2 will go extinct, as a result, other animals that rely on the c4 plants for food will be affected,

 seawater has been decreasing for the past six hundred million years as it has been transported into the mantle in the form of hydras minerals finally mid-oceanic ridges form summits above the seawater, water cannot be taken into the crust as a lubricant anymore, and plate tectonics is terminated, this is the fate of a cooling planet

 volcanic activity along these subduction zones stops, the upheaval of the mountains stops, the Earth suffers severe environmental changes due to erosion, subducted cold plates do not go down to the bottom of the mantle, the outer core is not cooled down anymore, and the geomagnetic field disappears

 The solar wind removes Earth's atmosphere at this point, large multicellular animals living in the surface environment go extinct when the ocean disappears, animals that survived in the sea will also die finally all the Earth's life disappears the heating up of the solar surface increases the Earth's surface temperature to 500 degrees Celsius, the Earth becomes a Venus-like planet

The andromeda galaxy collides with our Milky Way galaxy; because of this collision, stars' birth rate increases with time those stars undergo supernova explosions, intense galactic cosmic rays rain on, the expanding Sun will swallow the Earth. This is the day when the planet Earth that gave birth to life will disappear from the universe; by that time, the Earth's life will have reached other galaxies as self-replicating artificial life in a different form. 

 In the Earth's HADEAN eon, tidal forces were far more pronounced than they're today. Even lakes had a giant urban flow of water, creating wet and dry cycles. These moist and dry cycles were one of the foremost crucial factors in producing the building blocks of life, and fatty acids came together, encasing the proto life molecules polymerization progressed under the wet and dry cycles,

 Eventually, protein-like raw materials that might act as catalysts were produced. These molecules circulated between the geyser cave and so the surface environment. The interactions of these materials led to additional composite biomolecules.

RNA

Proto RNA combined with enzyme-like raw materials and evolved into ribozymes that may replicate themselves. This laid the groundwork forever to breed. Finally, these molecules were enclosed within lipid membranes forming primitive proto cellular energy, which was the beginning of life.  

The Earth's architecture which had begun with the creation of its ocean eventually destroyed its prime elements and classified it to the deep mantle,

METABOLISM

By 4 billion years ago the mother continent had disappeared leaving life on the margins of a fragmented landmass, inside the earth a dramatic change was near begin the subducted primordial continent descended toward the core-mantle boundary, the wealth of radioactive elements within the primordial continent caused the uppermost an element of the core to melt, by 4.2 billion years ago the newly-created liquid outer core was strengthening the Earth's field protecting the surface environment against solar winds and cosmic rays, as a result life could exist on the surface environment the supply of energy and nutrients through material circulation is vital forever, the essential mechanism to require care of life is an endless flow of electrons the first pro to life couldn't survive very removed from the nuclear geyser due to insufficient energy, mutations however allowed life to evolve the more resilient life-forms were able to adapt and survive in harsh environments, this second stage of proto life evolved to make use of the daylight available on the layer they developed a metabolism that converted light energy into electrochemical energy, moreover thay use stored energy in the form sugars at night hours.

DNA

The source of energy for all times on Earth shifted from nuclear geysers to the sun. Around 4.1 billion years ago, the ocean was still extremely toxic, killing off most of the proto life-forms within it nevertheless some proto life-forms survived, the acute environment they developed protective mechanisms to prevent the metallic ions within the ocean water from entering their protocells this proto life began merging into more extensive and more complex forms, modern life-forms use only twenty styles of amino acids this means our ancestors that used the identical amino acids were those who survived the mass extinction, evolution walks a difficult tightrope between continuing and ending unstable RNA evolved through radiation into more durable DNA making it possible to pass information across generations reliably, and also the third stage of proto life was born this was the beginning of prokaryotic organisms the ancestors of today's archaea and bacteria. 

When unbound to the opposite material, oxygen could also be toxic to life because oxygen destroys the reductive life body. Therefore the first photosynthetic organisms would are anaerobic microbes that produced no oxygen. Life, however, adapted taking advantage of oxygen as source of additional energy. This development resulted within the looks of cyanobacteria.

CYANOBACTERIA

Cyanobacteria produced oxygen which crystallized into felsic iron-bearing oxide, reducing the iron content of the ocean still the ocean was five times as saline because it's today.

because the Earth's interior cooled, old slabs of the primordial crust resting at the underside of the layer fell into the lower cover. Meanwhile, numerous mantle plumes ascended from the layer into the upper mantle; this phenomenon is believed as mantle overturn.

Mantle plumes pushed the basaltic crust upward, generating landmass. This created shallow marine environments penetrated by sunlight which allowed the cyanobacteria to flourish, the oxygen produced by the cyanobacteria gradually altered the Earth's atmosphere; on the seabed, ferric and ferrous iron were accumulating within the type of hematite and magnetite, creating an infinite banded iron formation, by 2.5 billion years ago the remaining banded iron formation was some kilometers thick, this rapid decrease in iron content changed the color of the ocean to a well-recognized blue, life began to change the surface environment such is that the coevolution of the globe and its inhabitants this was an important step in life on Earth's long journey towards civilization.

MILKY WAY GALAXY

A collision between the Milky Way and a close-by dwarf galaxy produced countless glowing stars. Within some thousand years, variety of those stars led to supernova explosions, a myriad of cosmic rays from the supernova deteriorated the sun's heliosphere and bombarded the globe, these cosmic rays help generate cloud condensation nuclei which produced more and more clouds until the world was blanketed entirely with them the thick overcast prevented sunlight from reaching the surface of the globe, the world underwent a worldwide glaciation event said because the snowball Earth this caused another global mass extinction, but another time some life survived yet another difficult period beneath the ice sheet, tiny life was protected by the Earth's massive circulating system, and also the planet is similarly held in place by the scheme and also the expansive universe, life is but one part of an infinite structure.

The prokaryotes survived the snowball Earth evolving into more complex life like endosymbiotic systems inhabitancy inside cells. They formed mitochondria and chloroplasts, which allowed them to induce more energy from oxygen. one prokaryote body could contain thousands of mitochondria, and a nuclear membrane began protecting DNA from the oxygen dense ocean water; DNA strands grew longer, retaining ever more genetic information life evolved into more diverse and sophisticated organisms, at long last, the eukaryotes appeared the eukaryotes developed 1,000,000 times larger than the prokaryotes, in theory, everything inevitably falls into Disorder, but life is chaotic and extremely complicated, life seems to continue evolving undeterred by universal entropy.

plate tectonic theory caused small developing continents to assemble into one supercontinent called Nuna. The forming of Nuna led to an expanding ecosystem for cyanobacteria on lakes, rivers, wetlands and estuaries.

Cyanobacteria produce free oxygen through photosynthesis at that time; however, most of the free oxygen produced was consumed in decomposing dead.

Cyanobacteria so little free oxygen accumulated within the atmosphere on land; however, dead cyanobacteria got buried under sediments, so oxygen that may have de-escalated their bodies instead ended up within the atmosphere. The presence of an oversized landmass helped increase the quantity of oxygen within the atmosphere because the complete area on the surface of the globe grew, so too did atmospheric oxygen levels dramatically.

 The galaxy System galaxy collided with a dwarf galaxy and underwent to transition into starburst conditions. Over time these newly produced stars led to supernova explosions bombarding the globe with cosmic rays, the planet with its weak quadrupole flux was heavily affected clouds covered the whole Earth and ice-covered its surface a series of supernova explosions occurred long periods of utmost heat were punctuated by shorter periods of maximum cold, within the extremely cold periods. Oxygen within the atmosphere fell to archaean eon levels causing mass extinctions. These mass extinctions, however, created great opportunities for keeps to evolve into something completely new, repeated influxes of cosmic rays and drastic fluctuations in oxygen levels. These environmental changes caused genetic mutations that accelerated the looks of recent species.

 NATURAL SCIENCE

Natural Science

Natural science is a branch of science concerned with describing, predicting, and understanding natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to ensure the validity of scientific advances.

Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy, and Earth science. These natural science branches may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature".

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Physics
Chemistry
Earth science
Space Science or Astronomy

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Physical science is an encompassing term for natural science branches that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. 

However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction since many physical science branches also study biological phenomena. 

There is a difference between physical science and physics.

Physics

Physics

Physics (from Ancient Greek: φύσις, romanized: physis, lit. 'nature') is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, 

along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature conducted to understand how the universe behaves.

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.

Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, 

During the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. 

Specific research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that physics boundaries are not rigidly defined. 

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, physicalism emerged as a prominent unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon.

New ideas in physics often explain other sciences' fundamental mechanisms while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.

Branches Of Physics 

Classical Mechanics

This branch of physics studies the motion of macroscopic objects through time and space. Newton's Laws of Motion form the foundation of classical mechanics.

Concepts like velocity, acceleration, projectile motion, force, a moment of inertia, etc., are an integral part of classical mechanics. 

Sir Isaac Newton and William Hamilton were the pioneers in the study of classical mechanics.

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and temperature. It also correlates heat with energy and work, heat, temperature, energy, etc.

They are governed by the Four laws of Thermodynamics. Thermodynamics can be further branched into classical thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, chemical thermodynamics, and equilibrium thermodynamics. 

James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, Max Planck, Rudolf Clausius, and William Thomson are some of the well-known names in the field of thermodynamics.

Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics entails the study of energy levels in atomic and subatomic particles. 

Quantum field theory is one of the most essential quantum mechanics principles as it connects it with relativity and classical mechanics. 

It is a relatively new branch of physics, with origins dating to the early 1900s. Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, and Max Born are considered pioneers of quantum mechanics.

Electromagnetism

The physical reaction between particles carrying electrical charges can be defined as the electromagnetic force. 

The study of electromagnetic force forms the crux of electromagnetism. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. 

The other fundamental forces are strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force, and gravitational force. 

Electromagnetic induction, Faraday's law, and Maxwell's equations are essential topics covered in electromagnetism.

 André-Marie Ampère and Michael Faraday are considered to be the Fathers of Electromagnetism.

Relativity

The theory of relativity is perhaps the most talked-about concept to have originated from the brilliant mind of Albert Einstein. 

Relativity establishes a relation between space and time. It has two postulates:

a. The laws of physics are identical in all inertial systems.

b. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers, irrespective of the light source's motion.

The theory of relativity can be mathematically explained as E=mc2, where E is energy, m is the object's mass, and c is the speed of light.

Optics and Optical Physics

Optics involves the study of light, its properties, and how it interacts with different surfaces. 

It explains how light acts as a particle as well as a wave. Optical Physics divides light into three categories: visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light.

Reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference are some of the topics covered under optical physics.

Condensed Matter Physics

The study of macroscopic and microscopic properties of matter in different condensed phases is called condensed matter physics. 

While solid and liquid are the most commonly known condensed phases of matter, superconducting phase, ferromagnetic phase, and antiferromagnetic phase are also discussed in this physics branch. 

Condensed matter physics is closely related to chemistry, material science, atomic physics, and nanotechnology.

Particle and Nuclear Physics

Particle physics discusses the nature of particles that constitute matter and radiation. 

Nuclear physics entails the study of atomic nuclei and their various properties. 

Since both these concepts deal with subatomic particles, they are often clubbed together as a particle and nuclear physics. 

Nuclear decay, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, etc., are a few widely read topics in this field of physics.

Cosmology

The study of how the universe was created, how it is expanding, and how it will end falls under the branch of Cosmology. 

The theories and philosophies stated in cosmology are primarily based on assumptions and cannot be verified. 

The Big Bang Theory is one of the popular topics discussed in modern cosmology. Astrophysicists, metaphysicians, and astronomers often study it.

Chemistry

Chemistry

Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. 

The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, 

being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter and the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. 

It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon-based). 

Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, 

the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, 

the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years,

 e.g., neurochemistry, the chemical study of the nervous system.

Branches Of Chemistry 

Agrochemistry

This branch of chemistry may also be called agricultural chemistry. It deals with the application of chemistry for agricultural production,

food processing, and environmental remediation as a result of agriculture.

Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry involved with studying the properties of materials or developing tools to analyze materials.

Astrochemistry

Astrochemistry is the study of the composition and reactions of the chemical elements and molecules found in the stars and space and the interactions between this matter and radiation.

Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical reactions that occur inside living organisms.

Chemical Engineering

Chemical engineering involves the practical application of chemistry to solve problems.

Chemistry History

Chemistry history is the branch of chemistry and history that traces the evolution over chemistry as a science. 

To some extent, alchemy is included as a topic of chemistry history.

Cluster Chemistry

This chemistry branch involves the study of clusters of bound atoms, intermediate in size between single molecules and bulk solids.

Combinatorial Chemistry  Combinatorial chemistry involves computer simulation of molecules and reactions between molecules.

Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that involves studying chemical reactions in a solution at the interface between an ionic conductor and an electrical conductor.

Electrochemistry may be considered to be the study of electron transfer, particularly within an electrolytic solution.

Environmental Chemistry

Environmental chemistry is the chemistry associated with soil, air, and water and human impact on natural systems.

Food Chemistry

Food chemistry is the branch of chemistry associated with the chemical processes of all aspects of food. Many aspects of food chemistry rely on biochemistry, 

However, it incorporates other disciplines as well.

General Chemistry

General chemistry examines the structure of matter and the reaction between matter and energy. 

It is the basis for the other branches of chemistry.

Geochemistry 

Geochemistry is the study of chemical composition and chemical processes associated with the Earth and other planets.

Green Chemistry  

Green chemistry is concerned with processes and products that eliminate or reduce the use or release of hazardous substances.

 Remediation may be considered part of green chemistry.

Inorganic Chemistry  

Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the structure and interactions between inorganic compounds, 

which are any compounds that are not based on carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Kinetics 

Kinetics examines the rate at which chemical reactions occur and the factors that affect chemical processes.

Medicinal Chemistry 

Medicinal chemistry is chemistry as it applies to pharmacology and medicine.

Nanochemistry 

Nanochemistry is concerned with the assembly and properties of nanoscale assemblies of atoms or molecules.

Nuclear Chemistry 

Nuclear chemistry is the branch of chemistry associated with nuclear reactions and isotopes.

Organic Chemistry

This branch of chemistry deals with the chemistry of carbon and living things.

Photochemistry 

Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with interactions between light and matter.

Physical Chemistry 

Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that applies physics to the study of chemistry. 

Quantum mechanics and thermodynamics are examples of physical chemistry disciplines.

Polymer Chemistry 

Polymer chemistry or macromolecular chemistry is the branch of chemistry the examines the structure and properties of macromolecules and polymers and finds new ways to synthesize these molecules.

Solid State Chemistry 

Solid-state chemistry is the branch of chemistry focused on the structure, properties, and chemical processes that occur in the solid phase.

 Much of solid-state chemistry deals with the synthesis and characterization of new solid-state materials.

Spectroscopy 

Spectroscopy examines the interactions between matter and electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength. Spectroscopy is commonly used to detect and identify chemicals based on their spectroscopic signatures.

Thermochemistry 

Thermochemistry may be considered a type of Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry involves the study of the thermal effects of chemical reactions and the thermal energy exchange between processes.

Theoretical Chemistry 

Theoretical chemistry applies chemistry and physics calculations to explain or make predictions about chemical phenomena.

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Formal sciences

Formal sciences

The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics.

Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world (empirical knowledge),

 However, instead of with the properties of formal systems are based on definitions and rules. 

Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences constitute a science. 

Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality, 

Moreover, significant advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.

 Logic

Logic

Logic (from Greek: λογική, logikḗ, 'possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative') is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. 

The relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion) based on a set of other propositions (premises). 

More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments.

It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the logical forms; 

the validity and soundness of deductive reasoning; the strength of inductive reasoning; the study of formal proofs and inference (including paradoxes and fallacies); 

and the study of syntax and semantics.

Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics (since the mid-19th century). 

More recently, logic has been studied in cognitive science, which draws on computer science, linguistics, philosophy, and psychology, among other disciplines.

Mathematics

Mathematics

Mathematics, in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally, mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas: 

arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis, which are, roughly speaking, the study of quantity, structure, space, and change, respectively.

 Statistics

Statistics

Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data.

It deals with all aspects of this, including data collection planning in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.

A statistician is particularly well-versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. 

Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a vast number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, 

which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.

When referring to the scientific discipline, the word statistics is singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This should not be confused with the word statistic, 

referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a set of data, whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").

 Systems theory

Systems theory

Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems to elucidate principles applicable to all types of systems in all fields of research. 

The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. 

The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the sociological autopoiesis of Niklas Luhmann.

In this context, the word systems are used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e., that are self-correcting through feedback. 

Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including our body's physiological systems, local and global ecosystems, and climate.

 Decision theory

Decision theory

Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory) is the study of an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory,

which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents make the decisions they do.

Decision theory is closely related to the field of game theory and is an interdisciplinary topic studied by economists, statisticians, 

psychologists, biologists, political and other social scientists, philosophers, and computer scientists.

Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually made with the help of statistical and econometric methods.

 Theoretical computer science

Theoretical computer science

Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical computing topics and includes computation theory.

It is not easy to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM's Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description:

TCS covers a wide variety of topics, including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, 

quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, 

computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigour.

Formation Of Life

Billions of years ago, on the young planet Earth, simple organic compounds assembled into more complex coalitions that could grow and reproduce. They were the first life on Earth, and they gave rise to every one of the billions of species that have inhabited our planet since. 

So, where on Earth could life begin? To begin searching for the cradle of life, it’s important to first understand the necessities for any life form. Elements and compounds essential to life include hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, phosphates, and ammonia. For these ingredients to comingle and react with each other, they need a liquid solvent: water. And to grow and reproduce, all life needs a source of energy. 

Life forms are divided into two camps: autotrophs, like plants, that generate their energy, and heterotrophs, like animals, consume other organisms for energy. The first life form wouldn’t have had other organisms to consume, of course, so it must have been an autotroph, generating energy either from the sun or from chemical gradients. 

So what locations meet these criteria? Places on land or close to the surface of the ocean have the advantage of access to sunlight. But when life began, the UV radiation on Earth’s surface was likely too harsh for life to survive there. One set offers protection from this radiation and an alternative energy source: the hydrothermal vents that wind across the ocean floor, covered by kilometres of seawater and bathed in complete darkness. 

A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in the Earth’s crust where seawater seeps into magma chambers and is ejected back out at high temperatures, along with a rich slurry of minerals simple chemical compounds. Energy is particularly concentrated at the steep chemical gradients of hydrothermal vents.

LUCA wasn’t the first life form, but it’s as far back as we can trace. Even so, we don’t know what LUCA looked like there’s no LUCA fossil, no modern-day LUCA still around instead, scientists identified genes that are commonly found in species across all three domains of life that exist today. Since these genes are shared across species and domains, they must have been inherited from a common ancestor. These shared genes tell us that LUCA lived in a hot, oxygen-free place and harvested energy from a chemical gradient like the ones at hydrothermal vents.

There are two kinds of hydrothermal vents: black smokers and white smokers. Black smokers release acidic, carbon-dioxide-rich water, heated to hundreds of degrees Celsius and packed with sulfur, iron, copper, and other metals essential to life. But scientists now believe that black smokers were too hot for LUCA so now the top candidates for the cradle of life are white smokers. 

Among the white smokers, a field of hydrothermal vents on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge called Lost City has become the most favoured candidate for the cradle of life. The seawater expelled here is highly alkaline and lacks carbon dioxide but is rich in methane and offers more hospitable temperatures. Adjacent black smokers may have contributed the carbon dioxide necessary for life to evolve at Lost City, giving it all the components to support the first organisms that radiated into the incredible diversity of life on Earth today.

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